Most of the components of printing were known in Europe by the fifteenth century. Paper had been introduced from the East around 1200. Presses were used in making wine and olive oil. Block printing —utilizing a piece of wood with words and pictures carved out of it——was employed for making playing cards and religious posters.

The key invention in printing was movable type: individual letters that could be reassem­bled and used over and over again.  This, too came from the East, but was little used there because Chinese characters are too numerous to make it practical.  Movable type was in­vented independently in Europe, probably by Johannes Gutenberg some time in the early fifteenth century.  Gutenberg lived most of his life in Mainz, Germany.  Although exact records are not available, most historians would agree he was probably born around 1400 and died by 1468.   He produced a Bible in 1448 and a missal be­tween 1448 and 1452.  His greatest achieve­ment was the so-called forty-two-line Bible, or Gutenberg Bible, printed between 1450 and 1455.

Printing spread rapidly to the rest of Europe Italy, France and the Netherlands were noted for their fine printers, who were responsible for a number of innovations, Among them were italic letters type like this). William Caxton, the first English printer, pro­duced an edition of Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales in 1478.  This book often poked fun at the Catholic Church and contributed to people’s concern that changes needed to be made within the church.

By 1500 there were 40,000  recorded editions of books, printed in fourteen different European countries.  Although edi­tions were small in those days averaging fewer than a thousand copies, the total is impressive nonetheless. Most early printed books were copies of older works that had been popular in manuscript form. It was not until the Reformation, the era of religious change and reform, that printing became a powerful communications medium for the spread of new ideas.  

Probably the single most influential book of the Italian Renaissance was The Prince written by Niccolo Machiavelli. Machiavelli dedicated The Prince to the Medici family who were the rulers of Florence, one of the most powerful Italian city-states.  He advised the “prince” to be a patriotic tyrant who would use force and cunning if necessary.  His guide to how to rule a state was widely read by kings and queens who would rule Europe in the coming ages. Machiavelli’s writings and thoughts helped to form many other people’s ideas about government.  Read more about this person to see if you agree with his ideas.

• http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/REN/MACHIAV.HTM.

Read the following excerpts from the Prince. 

Click on this site to read Chapter 18 of the Prince:

* http://www.wsu.edu:8080/~dee/REN/PRINCE18.HTM

Click on this site to read additional selections:

* http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/prince-excerp.html.

In a well-organized essay, evaluate Machiavelli’s arguments about the qualities of a successful ruler. Identify the main points Machiavelli supports and include a discussion of the strengths and weaknesses of his vision. In addition, analyze the effectiveness of Machiavelli’s ruling style in both Renaissance and modern governments.

Go to the Assignments area to review the rubric that will be used to grade your essay. Write and save your essay in a Word document under the heading Assignment_2.04. Return to the Assignments area and submit your work.
 

In this lesson, you will learn about the Catholic Counter reformation as the Catholics respond!

The Counter Reformation was an effort on the part of the Catholic Church to do two things

First it tried to preserve, but with a new spirit, the basic beliefs and practices of Catholicism.

Second it attempted to stop or even turn back, the spread of Protestantism.

One measure taken by Pope Paul III was a council of Church leaders. This Council of Trent was called into session in 1545 and met off and on for eighteen years.  It refused to accept any Protestant doctrines, instead reaffirming all Catholic dogma and rites, At the same time it did introduce reforms.  It controlled the sale of indulgences, strengthened the internal structure of the Church, and improved the training of priests.

The Council of Trent also strengthened the Inquisition, the court set up in the thirteenth century to combat heresy. However, the Inquisition could function only where the Church was already powerful and had the support of the state. Thus it was used where it was least needed —where the Church was strongest

Another vital element of the Counter Reformation was a new religious order, the Jesuits. The order was founded in the 1530’s by St. Ignatmus of Loyola, a former soldier.

Jesuit missionaries traveled everywhere in Protestant areas they tried to win people back to the Catholic Church. In Catholic countries  they were noted for the schools they established to teach the faith to young people. Jesuits also traveled overseas  to Asia and to newly discovered  America to make new converts to the faith. One reason that the dominant religion of Latin America today, Catholicism, is due to the work of the Jesuit missionaries. The Counter Reformation gave new life to Catholicism and preserved the basic tenets of the faith.  By 1600 most of northern Europe was Protestant, however within the Protestant movement various denominations  begin to form.

The Condition of the Church (1400-1517)
Scroll to "Growing Conditions for Reform"

1. What circumstances in the 14th century had undermined the credibility of the Church?
2. What types of clerical transgressions of moral standards occurred?
3. What was clerical pluralism?
4. Which clerics were most likely to be guilty of the practice?

1. How did the term "protestant" originate?
2. How did Luther answer the following questions: How is a person saved? Where does religious authority reside? What is the Church? What is the highest form of Christian life? What sacraments are validated by scripture?
3. What were Luther's views as to sex and marriage?
4. How did Luther's message appeal to women?
5. What was the effect of the Reformation upon education?

1. What common characteristics were shared by the early Protestants?
2. Rank the top three doctrinal differences between the Protestant and Catholic churches. Justify your ranking in at least (2) detailed paragraphs.

1. What theological positions and reforms were agreed to at the Council of Trent?
2. What were the principal failures of the Council?
3. What was the long term result of the Council?

1. What was the method employed by Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits, to combat Protestantism?
2. What characteristics of the Jesuit Order were responsible for its success in the Catholic Counter-Reformation?

Once you have completed the items above, save your Word document under the heading Assignment_2.06. Go to the Assignments area and submit your work.